1. The Mechanical Clock. Before this invention, time was inseparable from events, the main one being the Sun crossing the sky. Only local time existed, no universal river of time. If you agreed to meet someone at sunset, you had to say where, because the Sun is always setting somewhere. The sundial merely divided the Sun's daily journey into units, which meant the hour had no fixed length: it swelled and shrank with the seasons. Besides, no one carried a sundial around, so you never heard anyone say, "Can't talk now, I'm on the sundial." Then, mechanical clocks came around--gears, springs, pendulums, the works. Gradually, as these clocks all came to be coordinated, they created public time, a thing in itself: one single, universal current flowing everywhere throughout the universe, always at the same pace. People could now communicate with each other by coordinating to this universal frame of reference. Thus, clocks made factories, offices, schools, meetings, and appointments possible. The activities of millions could be meshed like, well, clockwork. And of course, what clocks made possible, they soon made necessary. In a clock-driven world, most of us are now either "on time," "ahead of schedule," or "running late."
2. The Toilet* and Modern Plumbing.* Go ahead. Laugh. Then try to imagine New York City without toilets. You can't. The ability to remove sewage from and bring clean water into places of dense human habitation makes the modern city possible. Without it, we'd still have cities, but not like the ones we know. A high-rise building would be impossible, really, without toilets and plumbing. Remove apartment buildings, office towers, and dense downtown cores from your picture of the world and you have to change the whole rest of your picture too, because the implications keep rippling.
3. The Printing Press. Unoriginal, I know, but still it's true. Gutenberg's press, with its movable type, launched publishing. In the short term, this made the Reformation possible by putting a Bible in the hands of anybody who wanted one. The Church lost its lock on truth, and the sovereign individual soon emerged as the key unit of Western society. In the longer term, publishing universalized literacy*. Before this invention, so few could read that, effectively, even those few lived in a world of oral tradition and memory. Humanity's consensual picture of reality was shaped by stories, told and retold. In this fluid world, if the big picture shifted, no one knew, because they had nothing to check it against. The proliferation of text fixed objective reality. Now, when two people disagree about what happened yesterday, they can look it up. Stories have survived, but merely as entertainment. Our modern collective picture of reality is founded on facts archived as text.
Worth a Click
Technology Review senior editor Herb Brody picks the most important inventions of the past 1,000 years.*
A chart of great inventions, their inventors, and the year of the invention.
4. Immunization and Antibiotics. Three centuries ago, almost everyone died of infectious diseases. When the plague broke out in 1347, it killed nearly half of Europe--in about two years. When diseases such as smallpox reached North America, they reduced the indigenous population by about 90 percent within a century. As late as 1800, the leading cause of death in the West was tuberculosis. Hardly anyone died of old age back then, one reason why elders were revered. Today, elders are a dime a dozen: nothing unusual about surviving past 70. In the United States, 73 percent of people die of heart failure, cancer, and stroke. Chronic respiratory illnesses (related to smoking mostly) account for the fourth biggest slice of funeral business. It's a different world, folks.
5. The Telephone. Lots of people imagined the telephone before any telephone existed. Wouldn't it be cool, they said, if you could talk to someone in another city without leaving home? Once the device was invented, and businessmen had wrested it away from the inventors, the Network began to form. That's the actual invention--the Network. It enables anyone to talk to anyone anywhere at any given moment. So today, anyone's real-time group includes people not physically present, and they could be anywhere. The infrastructure took some time to develop, but the telephone implied all this from the start. Wireless cell phones don't change the core idea, they merely extend it. The Network continues to deepen.
6. The Electrical Grid. Electricity existed all along, but the system of devices needed to generate this force and distribute it to individual buildings was an invention, launched initially by Edison: He effectively turned electricity into a salable commodity and his Pearl Street station was the world's first electric power station. Nikola Tesla's invention of alternating current (AC) technology then made it possible to transmit electricity over long distances, leading to the nationwide grid we know today. Now, anyone in the West and throughout most of the world can tap into the grid to power everything from light bulbs to computers. We are, in fact, a social organism animated by electricity (and rendered conscious by the Network--see above).
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7. The Automobile. Once cars were invented, roads were improved. Once roads were improved, cities sprouted suburbs, because people could now live in the country, yet work in the city. And thus we have become a nation of sprawl, rather than density. Furthermore, as cars grew popular, the oil industry boomed. Oil became a key to power and wealth--and one of the major factors for political and economic unrest in the Middle East. And here we are today.
8. The Television. Wherever a television set is on, it absorbs attention like no other piece of furniture. Jane Healy, in her book Endangered Minds, says television has changed the human brain itself. Our neural networks are not hardwired at birth but continue to develop for several years, new circuits forming in response to our first interactions with the environment. In much of the developed world, young children interact largely with television, so their neural networks hardwire to accommodate its warm, one-way, pacifying, activity-dampening stimulus.
9. The Computer. Okay, look. I'll come clean: My deepest, richest, most diverse, and rewarding relationship is with my computer. It plays games with me, tells me jokes, plays music to me, and does my taxes. I have great conversations with it, too. These conversations appear as e-mail and take on the personalities of supposed "friends," but the human embodiments of those "friends" are rarely with me. My concrete relationship is with this object on my desk (or in my lap). Anyway, when we can take the equivalent of our own brains onto an airplane with us in an attaché case, that's got to be shaping who we are in some important way.
10. Something New. So many seminal new inventions are coming into their own right now that one of them surely belongs on this list, but which one? The Internet represents the emergence of a global brain, separate from all the human cells contributing to it. Birth control will ultimately transform the role women play in society and history--and any transformation in who women are will force a transformation in men, too. Genetic engineering can potentially complete the metamorphosis of people into products. There's no telling what such an objectification of ourselves will do to us. And what about virtual reality? It's bidding to dissolve the age-old distinction between what is real and what is imaginary. I can't imagine how that will change our lives--no, really, I can't. Imagine.
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